As semiconductor device feature sizes move beyond the sub-7 nm technology node, atomic scale processing techniques such as atomic layer deposition (ALD) and atomic layer etching (ALE) are being adopted to gain control over key processing parameters.These techniques are commonly combined with thin polymer barrier layers such as self-assembled monolayers (SAM) that are selectively located to achieve area selective deposition or etching. In protein and DNA chips, monolayers of specific molecules are engineered and patterned to guide the target molecules to specific locations.Common to these devices and processes are the atomic scale thicknesses, nanoscale lateral dimensions, and the combination of multiple materials consisting of organic and inorganic compounds, metals, and 1D/2D materials which demand new metrology and characterization techniques to assess and monitor these advanced processing techniques.Photo-induced Force Microscopy (PiFM) [1] combines infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to achieve nanoscale chemical analysis via localized IR absorption spectrum and mapping of heterogeneous materials on the surface of a sample (with sub-5 nm spatial resolution).The spectroscopic capability is useful for ascertaining the presence and quality of the molecular species. The mapping capability is useful for investigating surface functionalization and chemical pre-patterns as well as selectively deposited materials in area-selective processes like block copolymer directed self-assembly, sequential infiltration synthesis, and a variety of area-selective deposition techniques. PiFM applications on various atomic and molecular scale processes will be presented.

[1] D. Nowak et al., Sci. Adv. 2, e150157 (2016).

With critical dimensions scaled down to the nanoscale in current electronics, surface and interface roughness increasingly limit device performance. In this work, we use simulations and experiments to explore whether atomic layer deposition (ALD), atomic layer etching (ALE) and combinations of these techniques can be used to smoothen surfaces, while processing materials with excellent uniformity and atomic scale control. The smoothing is experimentally demonstrated by atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analysis.

Many previous studies have shown that ALD and ALE can smoothen surfaces,^1,2 but the extent of smoothing has not been systematically characterized and the mechanisms of smoothing are only partly understood. In our studies, finite difference simulations were performed that describe ALD/ALE as a uniform front from which the deposition/etching propagates isotropically at every point. Al₂O₃ ALD experiments using TMA and O₂ plasma validated this uniform front propagation model. A smoothing rate of 5.5·10^-3 nm RMS roughness reduction per nm of deposition was determined, revealing that significant smoothing by ALD requires relatively thick films (e.g. > 20 nm).

Al₂O₃ ALE from TMA and SF₆ plasma³ resulted in a larger roughness reduction of 9.8·10^-3 nm/nm, which is explained by considering that the fluorination of the surface depends on the local curvature, such that peaks are smoothed more than valleys. In other words, for ALE two mechanisms contribute to the smoothing, i.e. uniform front propagation and curvature-dependent fluorination. In order to benefit from the enhanced smoothing by ALE, especially combinations of ALD and ALE in supercycle recipes can be very effective in smoothing surfaces, as will be highlighted in the contribution.

(1)Elam et al., Thin Solid Films414, 43 (2002)

(2)Zywotko et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 36, 061508 (2008)

(3)Chittock et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 117, 162107 (2020)

Well controlled atomic layer etching (ALE) processing is needed for the creation of next generation complex 3D devices. A simple semiconductor processing compatible thermal ALE method is preferred for the process integration point of view. Recently we have developed the MoF6-H2O precursors based etching methods for the etching of atomic layer deposited (ALD) TiO2, Ta2O5 and MoS2 in a precise controlled manner. The etch rate and etch behavior of these materials mainly controlled by processing temperature (100-325^oC) and precursors dose times. The MoF6-H2O etching process of these ALD grown TiO2, Ta2O5 and MoS2 was studied by in-situ methods such as infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). Additionally, at present we have also developed novel in-situ calorimetry method to measure chemical reaction heat in ALE precursor’s reaction. Here some of latest results on this in-situ ALE-calorimetry method will also be presented.

Current and future thin film processes require quantitative characterization from the early phases of film growth to complex film stacks with a total thickness of only a few nm. While many surface analytical techniques are challenged by this requirement, Low Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS) analysis is ideally suited for ultra-thin film and sub-monolayer characterization. The key property is its single atomic layer information depth.

By scattering noble gas ions from the surface of the sample, LEIS determines the elemental composition of the surface of the outermost atomic layer. Nucleation processes and layer closure are investigated, but also diffusion from the bulk towards the surface can be studied with in-situ sample heating and continuous monitoring of the surface composition.

In addition to the surface composition, also the distribution of elements over the first few nm of the sample is contained in the spectra. The so-called "in-depth information" is acquired in a virtually non-destructive way, avoiding sputtering and therefore the long measurement times and artefacts associated with it. For sufficiently thin films, the depth resolution is only a few Å. This allows to study the development of the film thickness while also monitoring film closure to determine the growth mode.

In some cases, low energy noble gas sputtering is applied to extend the depth range beyond a few nm or to handle complex materials where "in-depth" and surface information cannot be deconvoluted.

In this contribution, we will highlight a number of examples from quite different materials and film systems. These will be used to illustrate how LEIS is applied in practical way. We will show how LEIS contributes unique information for modern ultra-thin film characterization.

In situ surface and film stress were measured during atomic layer deposition (ALD) using wafer curvature techniques in a new custom reactor. Aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) ALD using trimethylaluminum (TMA) and H₂O as the reactants was used as a model system to test this new apparatus. Al₂O₃ ALD was explored at different deposition temperatures ranging from 130 to 285°C. The in situ measured film stress during Al₂O₃ ALD is a tensile stress of 450 MPa at 130°C (Figure 1). The tensile stress then decreases with increasing deposition temperature. These in situ temperature-dependent Al₂O₃ ALD film stresses are in good agreement with ex situ film stress measurements for Al₂O₃ ALD films reported in the literature [1].

High sensitivity wafer curvature measurements are also able to measure the surface stress from individual surface reactions (Figure 2). These in situ measurements revealed that the TMA exposure results in a compressive surface stress. This compressive stress is attributed to repulsion between surface methyl species. In addition, the H₂O exposure removes surface methyl species and releases the compressive stress. The compressive surface stress resulting from the TMA exposure grows from 0.4 N/m at 150°C to 0.75 N/m at 285°C. This increase in the compressive surface stress from the TMA exposure can be attributed to the greater relative change in methyl coverage at higher deposition temperatures.

Additional in situ measurements have explored the surface and film stresses during AlF₃ ALD using TMA and HF as the reactants. AlF₃ ALD showed similar surface stress behavior to Al₂O₃ ALD. The TMA exposure again results in a compressive stress attributed to repulsion between surface methyl groups. The HF exposure then removes the methyl groups and releases the compressive stress. At AlF₃ ALD temperatures between 150-200°C, the compressive surface stress resulting from the TMA exposures is ~0.45 N/m. In marked contrast to Al₂O₃ ALD, AlF₃ ALD displayed no film stress during film growth. This lack of film stress in AlF₃ ALD films may be related to the nature of the AlF₃ ALD film as a molecular solid.

[1]O.M.E. Ylivaara et al., Thin Solids Films 552, 124 (2014)