[1] David L. Miller, Kevin D. Kubista, Gregory M. Rutter, Ming Ruan, Walt A. de Heer, Phillip N. First, Joseph A. Stroscio, Science (in press).

Development of graphene is a materials issue. Exfoliated graphene has shown the promise of high carrier mobilities, but for graphene to become technologically viable, epitaxial graphene formed over large areas must be developed. Reported carrier mobilities for epitaxial graphene grown on SiC range from > 250,000 to < 1,000 cm²V^-1s^-1. Mobility results can vary with measurement method, measurement temperature, and sample size. We will present our results, which encompass the aforementioned range of mobilities, for graphene formed on Si-face and C-face SiC.

Utilizing semi-insulating substrates, we have been able to correlate electrical characteristics with materials properties, which are dependent on the surface termination of SiC. Si-face graphene consistently shows lower mobilities than graphene grown on the C-face. XPS shows the differences between growth on the Si-face and the C-face are 1) the presence of an interfacial layer between the graphene and the SiC for Si-face films and 2) electronic differences between the C 1s peak for graphene on the C-face and the C 1s peak for graphene on the Si-face. The electronic differences may result from more graphene layers form on the C-face than on the Si-face. In particular, graphene forms only 1 to 3 layers on the Si-face even for long growth times at high temperature (e.g. 60 min at 1600 °C). STM images of graphene on the Si-face show an islanding mode of growth, which leads to the development of grain boundaries within the film, and µ-Raman measurements show that the mobility increases as the domain size increases. Graphene formed on the C-face of SiC grows very rapidly, leading to films which are 10 to 30 nm thick and decorated with striped surface features (referred to as “giraffe stripes”). Independent of the presence of giraffe stripes, we observe that surface roughness does affect mobility, with smoother surfaces having higher mobilities. We have also performed far infrared magneto-transmission measurements (FIR-MT) on the graphene films. The C-face graphene shows a 0(-1) → 1(0) Landau level transition with a √B dependence and linewidths consistent with layers having carriers described as Dirac fermions with mobilities > 250,000 cm²V^-1s^-1 at 4.2K. The Si-face graphene showed much broader linewidths resulting from lower carrier mobility. One trend that holds for graphene on both faces of SiC is that fabrication of small area devices can result in higher carrier mobilities and that carrier mobility increases as the carrier density decreases. Continued improvements in the electrical characteristics of epitaxial graphene can be realized through improvements in material quality.

We have measured the effect of low energy charged particle irradiation on the electronic transport properties of clean graphene devices. Irradiation of graphene by 500 eV Ne and He ions creates defects that cause intervalley scattering as evident from a significant Raman D band intensity. The defect scattering gives a conductivity proportional to charge carrier density, with mobility decreasing as the inverse of the ion dose. The mobility decrease is four times larger than for a similar concentration of singly charged impurities. The minimum conductivity decreases proportional to the mobility to values lower than 4e²/πh, the minimum theoretical value for graphene free of intervalley scattering. Defected graphene shows a diverging resistivity at low temperature, indicating insulating behavior. The results are best explained by ion-induced formation of lattice defects that result in mid-gap states.

Currently, the most promising route for large area graphene, suitable for standard device fabrication techniques, is the sublimation of silicon from silicon carbide (SiC) at elevated temperatures (>1200 °C). Prior to graphene synthesis, SiC substrates are generally hydrogen etched at elevated temperatures to remove residual polishing damage. However, this process can result in significant step bunching, and lead to large terrace step heights. We utilize various surface preparation conditions, Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy to investigate the nucleation and growth of epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001). The location of graphene was identified using a WITec confocal Raman microscope (CRM) with a 488 nm laser wavelength, diffraction limited lateral resolution of ~ 340 nm, and spectral resolution of 0.24 cm^-1. The physical topography of the SiC substrate and graphene films were determined by atomic force microscopy using a Digital Instruments Nanoscope 3A.

Samples with an in situ H₂ etch exhibit growth of graphene nearly exclusively at terrace step edges, while KOH etched samples exhibit graphene synthesis primarily at the etch pits and terrace step edges in the SiC surface. Those samples that experience no pre-treatment exhibit the highest surface coverage of any surface preparation, indicating that graphene grown on SiC(0001) nucleates at atomic scale defects on the SiC surface. This work provides evidence that defects in the form of dislocations, terrace step edges, and etch pits act as low energy nucleation sites for the growth of epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001). Finally, this work suggests that the growth of uniform graphene on SiC(0001) will be heavily influenced by the SiC substrate quality.

Epitaxially grown graphene films with various adsorbates have been prepared and investigated using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). Two regimes have been studied, which are differentiated by whether the adsorbates preserve the local symmetry of the graphene unit cell or not. For symmetry-preserving defects, such as adsorbed K or Ca atoms, the charge carriers in the graphene retain their metallic, Fermi liquid character, i.e. they can be described as single, weakly interacting “quasiparticles” with a relatively long lifetime as their energy approaches the Fermi level. (This is in contrast to strongly correlated systems where electron-electron scattering dominates the low energy dynamics) In such samples, ARPES measurements of the valence band can determine details of many-body interactions such as electron-phonon coupling. The second regime is followed by adsorbed atomic H atoms, which break the local lattice symmetry, and, for sufficiently high density, cause a dramatic breakdown in the quasiparticle picture, as evidenced by changes to the valence band spectrum. This, together with an accompanying metal-to-insulator transition, suggests that atomic H localizes the carriers, as described by Anderson’s theory.

*in collaboration with A. Bostwick, J. L. McChesney, T. Ohta, [LBNL], S. D. Kevan,[U. Oregon] K. V. Emtsev, Th. Seyller [U. Erlangen], and K. Horn [Fritz-Haber Institute]

Metallization of graphene surfaces are of crucial importance for the fabrication of metal-graphene contacts, and for surface functionalization via metallic nanostructures. In this paper, a novel method of selective deposition of Au clusters on graphene layers grown epitaxially on SiC substrate is presented. The size and the distribution of particles is regulated and fully controlled by the deposition process. From a combined use of scanning electron microscopy, x-ray electron spectroscopy and Raman microscopy, we propose that cluster nucleation takes place at the edges and defects in graphene domains, via oxidation of defects sites. The preferred nucleation indicates that a high level of selectivity is achieved by controlling the quality of the graphene film.