We discuss a materials breakthrough for MEMS. In contrast with conventional electromechanical devices, whose constituents are chosen from a vast range materials and alloys to optimize fabrication, performance and cost, MEMS have largely been made using the same materials and methods as those used in the silicon-based microelectronics industry. In order to make MEMS out of a much richer suite of materials, including metals, semiconductors, and ceramics, we have developed a process termed carbon nanotube templated microfabrication (CNT-M). In CNT-M we employ patterned, vertically aligned carbon nanotube forests as a three-dimensional microfabrication scaffold to create precise high-aspect-ratio (up to 200:1) microstructures. The “as grown” CNT forests are very low density (at 0.009 g/cc the forest is ~1% car bon and 99% air) and not useful as mechanical materials because they are extremely fragile, due to their low density and weak intratube bonding. However, when we replace the air spaces between tubes in the forest with a filler material by atomistic deposition, the infiltrated CNT framework becomes a robust microstructure consisting mostly of the filler material. Thus, by patterning the CNT microstructure and limiting the deposition of the filler material, CNT-M gives us control over structural features on both the nano and microscales (nanoscale porosity and microscale structure). We have used chemical vapor deposition to infiltrate the CNT framework with semiconductors (Si) and ceramics (SiO₂ , SiN_x, and nanocrystalline carbon) for applications in microactuation, sensing, and chemical separations. But many potential MEMS applications would benefit from structures fabricated from functional metals. We now report on the fabrication of metal microstructures using the CNT-M process. We demonstrate the versatility of this fabrication approach by demonstrating both chemical vapor infiltration (making tungsten and molybdenum structures) and electrodeposition (making nickel structures) based metal CNT-M processes. These metals provide several desirable materials properties to high aspect ratio MEMS applications including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high melting temperatures, resistance to corrosion, low thermal expansion, high Young’s modulus, hardness and yield strength. Electrical, mechanical, and structural characterization of the microfabricated metal structures will also be presented.

The STiGer process, which can be used in MEMS fabrication, is a time-multiplexed cryogenic process designed to etch deep anisotropic features in silicon: passivation and etching plasmas are cycled to get vertical structures. The passivation layer is a SiO_xF_y film which requires cryogenic substrate temperature conditions to grow. It desorbs and disappears when the substrate is heated back to room temperature. This is an advantage since no extra cleaning steps are required. Additionally, with the benefit of the periodic passivation cycles, this process is less sensitive to temperature or flow rate variations than standard cryoetching. This enhanced passivation helps to reduce undercut as well. Nevertheless, like in Bosch etching, the alternations induce a scalloping on the sidewalls.

We have already shown that trenches having critical aperture of about 0.8 µm can be etched with high aspect ratios (> 40). We have highlighted a defect called “extended scalloping", which is composed of anisotropic cavities developed on the feature sidewalls, just below the mask. It originates from ions scattered at the feature entrance that hit the top profile and remove locally the passivation layer. This defect is observed for aspect ratios higher than 10. Consequently, large structures, with openings larger than 100 µm, etched to a few hundred of µm show no extended scalloping.

We have proposed two methods that can help to reduce this defect. The first consists in adding a low oxygen flow in the etch cycle, favouring a low additional passivation. The second technique consists in gradually increasing the SF₆ flow, in the etching steps, during the first minutes of the recipe. Consequently, the process starts with a low etch rate and a more efficient passivation, which helps to limit the extended scalloping. These two techniques efficiently reduce the defects but the profiles tend to be always positive. It seems impossible to get at the same time vertical sidewalls and low defects.

We will present other ways to fix this problem. For example, we are currently investigating processes running at -50°C instead of usual cryogenic temperatures (-100°C). This aims to have a more conformal passivation layer, which may prevent the initiation of the extended scalloping. Additionnally, this range of substrate temperatures is of interest since it can be reached with chillers and thus, liquid nitrogen is no longer required.

Finally, we will present our results on downscaled structures. We have designed a mask with e-beam lithography comprising 200 nm to 800 nm wide trenches. It is used to evaluate the performances of the STiGer process on submicron structures.

Nano-electromechanical systems (NEMS)have exciting potential for fields ranging from quantum measurement science to ultrasensitive mass detection. For many of these applications, a key challenge is implementing a fast, reliable, low-noise technique for translating small mechanical motion to electronic signals. Electron tunneling transduction based on quantum tunneling is a promising technique to measure small displacements, because the tunneling current is so sensitive to the change in distance between the probing tip and the sample surface (one angstrom distance change causes 7 times tunneling current change). With frequency downmixing, the bandwidth limitation associated with the large RC time constant in the circuits can be overcome; very high frequencies may become accessible, fundamentally limited only by the tunneling rate I_T/e in the GHz range.

Using electron tunneling to sense nanomechanical motion comes with an inherent risk of back-action of the sensing probe (STM tip) on the mechanical device. The local tip-sample energy gradients introduce spring forces that can produce sizable shifts in resonance frequencies and may also affect sample quality factors. Understanding these effects is important for reliable use of downmixed tunneling transduction. Controlling them will allow for novel methods of MEMS and NEMS tuning of both frequency and quality factor.

In this presentation, we will report our observation of back-action forces on MEMS devices during downmixed electron tunneling transduction. We explore differences in the magnitude of the back-action force for different flexural and torsional vibrational modes (with varying degrees of inherent stiffness). We also discuss the perturbation to device quality factors. Finally, the vibration of the back-action force as a function of tip-sample distance is investigated.

Due to their unique mechanical and chemical characteristics, stimuli responsive hydrogels have garnered much interest in the field of biomedics. They perform dramatic volume transitions in response to external environmental stimuli such as pH and ionic strength of the solvent, temperature, and electrical field. Their soft elastomeric nature, serves to minimize mechanical and frictional irritation to the tissue bed, suggesting applications in artificial muscles and biomimetics, and their swelling capacity results in high permeabilities for certain drug molecules and metabolites making them ideal materials for drug delivery. Because the swelling rate of a hydrogel is inversely related to its size, MEMS offers a unique opportunity to exploit the capabilities of responsive hydrogels by minimizing actuator response time. While it is known that hydrogels with fixed charge groups deform when subjected to an externally applied electric field inside an electrolyte bath, the exact mechanism responsible for the deformation continues to be debated.

In this work, we have investigated the volume transformation of Pluronic based electroactive hydrogels immersed in a Krebs bathing solution under an applied electric field. The swelling characteristics of the crosslinked hydrogels were investigated and a model based on finite element analysis is proposed. Bias was applied via parallel Pt electodes and the distance between the electrodes was varied as was the ionic concentration and pH of the solution inside the testing tank. The feasibility of using an array of interdigitated electrodes fabricated on a printed circuit board as a means of actuation hydrogel was demonstrated with the goal of downsizing the hydrogel electrical-stimulation system for the creation of MEMS electro-responsive hydrogel actuators.